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Ariane 6

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Ariane 6
Ariane 62 (left) and Ariane 64 (right)
Function
ManufacturerArianeGroup
Country of originEuropean multi-national[a]
Project cost€3.215 billion[1]
Cost per launch
  • A62: €70 million (2018 est.)[2]
  • A64: €115 million (2018 est.)[2]
Size
Height63 m (207 ft)
Diameter5.4 m (18 ft)
Mass
  • A62: 530,000 kg (1,170,000 lb)
  • A64: 860,000 kg (1,900,000 lb)
Stages2
Capacity
Payload to LEO
Mass
  • A62: 10,350 kg (22,820 lb)[3]
  • A64: 21,650 kg (47,730 lb)[3]
Payload to GTO
Orbital inclination6°
Mass
  • A62: 4,500 kg (9,900 lb)[3]
  • A64: 11,500 kg (25,400 lb)[3]
Payload to GEO
Orbital inclination0°
MassA64: 5,000 kg (11,000 lb)[3]
Payload to SSO
Orbital inclination97.4°
Mass
  • A62: 7,200 kg (15,900 lb)[3]
  • A64: 15,500 kg (34,200 lb)[3]
Payload to LTO
Orbital inclination97.4°
Mass
  • A62: 3,500 kg (7,700 lb)[3]
  • A64: 8,600 kg (19,000 lb)[3]
Associated rockets
FamilyAriane
ComparableFalcon 9, Falcon Heavy, Terran R, H3, Vulcan Centaur
Launch history
StatusActive
Launch sitesGuiana Space Centre, ELA-4
Total launches1
Partial failure(s)1 (VA262)
First flight9 July 2024 (2024-07-09)[4]
Boosters – P120C
No. boosters2 or 4
Diameter3 m (9.8 ft)
Propellant mass142,000 kg (313,000 lb)
Maximum thrust3,500 kN (790,000 lbf) each
Total thrust
  • A62: 7,000 kN (1,600,000 lbf)
  • A64: 14,000 kN (3,100,000 lbf)
Burn time130 seconds
PropellantHTPB / AP / Al
First stage
Diameter5.4 m (18 ft)
Propellant mass140,000 kg (310,000 lb)
Powered by1 × Vulcain 2.1
Maximum thrust1,370 kN (310,000 lbf)
Burn time468 seconds
PropellantLOX / LH2
Second stage
Diameter5.4 m (18 ft)
Propellant mass31,000 kg (68,000 lb)
Powered by1 × Vinci
Maximum thrust180 kN (40,000 lbf)
Burn timeUp to 900 seconds and four burns[5]
PropellantLOX / LH2
[edit on Wikidata]

Ariane 6 is a European expendable launch system operated by Arianespace and developed and produced by ArianeGroup on behalf of the European Space Agency (ESA). It replaces Ariane 5, as part of the Ariane launch vehicle family.

This two-stage rocket utilizes liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen (hydrolox) engines. The first stage features an upgraded Vulcain engine from Ariane 5, while the second uses the Vinci engine, designed specifically for this rocket. The Ariane 62 variant uses two P120C solid rocket boosters, while Ariane 64 uses four. The P120C booster is shared with Europe's other launch vehicle, Vega C, and is an improved version of the P80 rocket stage used on the original Vega.

Selected in December 2014 over an all-solid-fuel option, Ariane 6 was originally targeted for a 2020 launch. However, the program encountered delays, with the first launch occurring on 9 July 2024.

Ariane 6 was designed to halve launch costs and increase annual capacity from seven to eleven missions compared to its predecessor,[needs update] but the program has faced controversy over high costs and lack of reusability versus competitors' rockets, such as SpaceX's Falcon 9. European officials defend the program, saying it provides crucial independent space access for its member states.

Description

[edit]

Two variants of Ariane 6 are offered:

  • Ariane 62 (A62), with two P120C solid boosters, weighs around 530,000 kg (1,170,000 lb) at liftoff and is mainly for government and scientific missions.[6] It can launch up to 4,500 kg (9,900 lb) into geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO) and 10,350 kg (22,820 lb) into low Earth orbit (LEO). The first launch in 2024 used this variant.
  • Ariane 64 (A64), with four P120C boosters, has a liftoff weight of around 860,000 kg (1,900,000 lb)[7] and is intended for commercial dual-satellite launches[6] of up to 11,500 kg (25,400 lb) into GTO and 21,500 kg (47,400 lb) into LEO. Like Ariane 5, it will be able to launch two geosynchronous satellites together.

First stage

[edit]

The first (lower) stage of Ariane 6 is called the Lower Liquid Propulsion Module (LLPM). It is powered by a single Vulcain 2.1 engine fueled by liquid hydrogen (LH2) with liquid oxygen (LOX).[8] The LLPM is 5.4 m (18 ft) in diameter and contains approximately 140 tonnes (310,000 lb) of propellant.[9]

Boosters

[edit]

Additional thrust for the first stage will be provided by either two or four P120C model solid rocket boosters, known within Ariane 6 nomenclature as Equipped Solid Rockets (ESR).[8] Each booster contains approximately 142,000 kilograms (313,000 lb) of propellant and delivers up to 4,650 kN (1,050,000 lbf) of thrust. The P120C engine is also used in the first stage of the upgraded Vega C launcher. By sharing motors, production volumes can be increased, lowering production costs.[10] The first full-scale test of the ESR occurred at Kourou, French Guiana, on 16 July 2018, and the test completed successfully with thrust reaching 4,615 kN (1,037,000 lbf) in vacuum.[11][12][13]

Second stage

[edit]

The second (upper) stage of Ariane 6 is called the Upper Liquid Propulsion Module (ULPM). It shares the same 5.4 m (18 ft) diameter as the LLPM, and is also fueled by LH2 and LOX. It is powered by the Vinci engine, which delivers 180 kN (40,000 lbf) of thrust, burns for up to 900 seconds and is capable of up to five restarts.[14] The ULPM carries about 31 tonnes (68,000 lb) of propellant.[10]

Block 2

[edit]

The more powerful Block 2 version of Ariane 6 is planned to enter service in 2026. It will use more powerful P160C model solid rocket boosters and increase thrust of the Vinci engine in the upper stage to 200 kN. This will expand the flight envelope and greatly increase its payload capabilities, with an expected gain of two tons to LEO. [15]

Development began in 2022 on the P120C+ variant of the boosters, which eventually evolved into the P160C. This extended version adds 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) to the motor's length and an additional 14 tonnes (14 long tons; 15 short tons) of propellant.[16] This upgrade translates to approximately 2 tonnes (4,400 lb) improvement in lift performance on the Ariane 64 with four boosters.[17] 16 of the planned 18 Kuiper launches by Ariane 6 will utilize this enhanced booster.[17]

CNES is providing assistance in adapting the current launch pad in Kourou to accommodate these more powerful A62 and A64 versions.[18]

Block 3

[edit]

An additional Block 3 upgrade is being discussed by the European Space Agency, ArianeGroup and CNES. Increased performance will primarily be achieved via an upgraded upper stage.[15]

The impetus for the upgrade is a number of upcoming lunar missions, including the European Argonaut logistics lunar lander project. A decision is expected during the November 2025 European ministerial meeting.

History

[edit]

Ariane 6 was conceived in the early 2010s to be a replacement launch vehicle for Ariane 5, and a number of concepts and high-level designs were suggested and proposed during 2012–2015. Development funding from several European governments was secured by early 2016, and contracts were signed to begin detailed design and the build of test articles. In 2019, the maiden orbital flight had been planned for 2020,[19] however by May 2020, the planned initial launch date was delayed into 2021.[20] In October 2020, the European Space Agency (ESA) formally requested an additional €230 million in funding from the countries sponsoring the project to complete development of the rocket and get the vehicle to its first test flight, which had slipped to the second quarter of 2022.[21] By June 2021, the date had delayed to late 2022.[22] In June 2022, a delay was announced to "some time in 2023"[23] and by October 2022, ESA clarified that the first launch would be no earlier than the fourth quarter of 2023, while providing no public reason for the delay.[24] In August 2023, ESA announced that the date for the first launch had slipped again to 2024.[25]

Concept and early development: 2010–2015

[edit]
Ariane 6 PPH cutaway drawing

Following detailed definition studies in 2012,[26] ESA announced in July 2013 the selection of the "PPH" (first stage of three P145 rocket motors, second stage of one P145 rocket motor, and H32 cryogenic upper stage) configuration for Ariane 6.[27] It would be capable of launching up to 6,500 kg (14,300 lb) to Geostationary transfer orbit (GTO),[28] with a first flight projected to be as early as 2021–2022.[29] Development was projected to cost €4 billion as of May 2013.[30] A 2014 study concluded that development cost could be reduced to about €3 billion by limiting contractors to five countries.[31]

While Ariane 5 typically launches one large and one medium satellite at a time, the PPH proposal for Ariane 6 was intended for single payloads, with an early 2014 price estimate of approximately US$95 million per launch.[32] The SpaceX Falcon 9 and the Chinese Long March 3B both launch smaller payloads but at lower prices, approximately $57 million and $72 million respectively as of early 2014, making the Falcon 9 launch of a midsize satellite competitive with the cost of the lower slot of a dual payload Ariane 5.[32] For lightweight all-electric satellites, Arianespace intended to use the restartable Vinci engine to deliver the satellites closer to their operational orbit than the Falcon 9 could, thus reducing the time required to transfer to geostationary orbit by several months.[32]

Ariane 6.1 and Ariane 6.2 proposals

[edit]

In June 2014, Airbus and Safran surprised ESA by announcing a counter proposal for the Ariane 6 project: a 50/50 joint venture to develop the rocket, which would also involve buying out the French government's CNES interest in Arianespace.[33][34]

This proposed launch system would come in two variants, Ariane 6.1 and Ariane 6.2.[35] While both would use a cryogenic main stage powered by a Vulcain 2 engine and two P145 solid boosters, Ariane 6.1 would feature a cryogenic upper stage powered by the Vinci engine and boost up to 8,500 kg (18,700 lb) to GTO, while Ariane 6.2 would use a lower-cost hypergolic upper stage powered by the Aestus engine. Ariane 6.1 would have the ability to launch two electrically powered satellites at once, while Ariane 6.2 would be focused on launching government payloads.

French newspaper La Tribune questioned whether Airbus Defence and Space could deliver on the promised costs for their Ariane 6 proposal, and whether Airbus and Safran Group could be trusted when they were found to be responsible for a failure of Ariane 5 flight 517 in 2002 and a more recent 2013 failure of the M51 ballistic missile.[36] The companies were also criticised for being unwilling to incur development risks, and asking for higher initial funding than originally planned – €2.6 billion instead of €2.3 billion. Estimated launch prices of €85 million for Ariane 6.1 and €69 million for Ariane 6.2 did not compare favorably to SpaceX offerings.[37] During the meeting of EU ministers in Geneva on 7 June 2014, these prices were deemed too high and no agreement with manufacturers was reached.[38]

Ariane 62 and Ariane 64 proposals

[edit]
Originally proposed Ariane A62 and Ariane A64

Following criticism of the Ariane 6 PPH design, France unveiled a revised Ariane 6 proposal in September 2014.[39] This launcher would use a cryogenic main stage powered by the Vulcain 2 and upper stage powered by the Vinci, but vary the number of solid boosters. With two P120C boosters, Ariane 6 would launch up to 5,000 kg (11,000 lb) to GTO at a cost of €75 million. With four boosters, Ariane 6 would be able to launch two satellites totaling 11,000 kg (24,000 lb) to GTO at a cost of €90 million.[40]

This proposal, unlike Ariane 6 PPH, offered a scalable launcher while retaining Ariane 5's dual-launch capability. The proposal also included simplification of the industrial and institutional organisation along with a better and cheaper version of the Vulcain 2 engine for the main stage.[39][40] Although Ariane 6 was projected to have "lower estimated recurring production costs", it was projected to have "a higher overall development cost owing to the need for a new, Ariane 6-dedicated, launch pad".[41]

The Italian, French, and German space ministers met on 23 September 2014, in order to plan strategy and assess the possibility for agreement on funding for the Ariane 5 successor,[42] and in December 2014, ESA selected the Ariane 62 and Ariane 64 designs for development and funding.[43]

At the 2022 International Astronautical Congress, ArianeGroup announced the proposed "Smart Upper Stage for Innovative Exploration", a reusable upper stage for the 64 (or later) variant, capable of autonomous cargo operations or carrying five astronauts to LEO.[44]

Test vehicle development: 2016–2021

[edit]

In November 2015, an updated design of Ariane 64 and 62 was presented, with new nose cones on the boosters, main stage diameter increased to 5.4 m (18 ft), and the height decreased to 60 m (200 ft).[45]

The basic design for Ariane 6 was finalised in January 2016 as an expendable liquid-fuelled core stage plus expendable solid-rocket-boosters design. Development advanced into detailed design and production phases, with the first major contracts already signed.[46][47] Unlike previous Ariane rockets, which are assembled and fueled vertically before being transported to the launchpad, the Ariane 6 main stages were to be assembled horizontally at the new integration hall in Les Mureaux and then transported to French Guiana, to be erected and integrated with boosters and payload.[48]

The horizontal assembly process was inspired by the Russian tradition for Soyuz and Proton launchers – which had more recently been applied to the American Delta IV and Falcon 9 boosters[49] – with a stated goal of halving production costs.[50]

The industrial production process was completely overhauled, allowing synchronized workflow between several European production sites moving at a monthly cadence, which would enable twelve launches per year, doubling Ariane 5's yearly capacity.[48] To further lower the price, Ariane 6 engines were to use 3D printed components.[51] Ariane 6 was to be the first large rocket to use a laser ignition system developed by Austria's Carinthian Research Center (CTR), that was previously deployed in automotive and turbine engines.[52] A solid state laser offers an advantage over electrical ignition systems in that it is more flexible with regards to the location of the plasma within the combustion chamber, offers a much higher pulse power and can tolerate a wider range of fuel-air mixture ratios.[53]

Reorganisation of the industry behind a new launch vehicle, leading to the creation of Airbus Safran Launchers (ASL), also started a review by the French government into tax matters, and the European Commission over a possible conflict of interest if Airbus Defence and Space, a satellite manufacturer, were to purchase launches from ASL.[51]

While development was initially slated to be substantially complete in 2019, with an initial launch in 2020, the initial launch date has slipped several times: first to 2021,[54] then to 2022,[21][22] then to 2023,[23] and then to 2024.[55] In October 2022, Arianespace expected the maiden flight to occur in 2023,[24] although in December 2023, Arianespace once again set the flight to occur on 15 June 2024.[55] In June 2024, ESA Executive said its first launch was postponed to July 9th 2024.[56] The maiden flight VA262 took place 9 July 2024 and successfully orbited some satellites even though the mission did suffer some problems.

Future development options

[edit]
Main article: Adeline (rocket stage)

CNES began studies in 2010[57] on an alternative, reusable first stage for Ariane 6, using a mix of liquid oxygen and liquid methane rather than liquid hydrogen that is used in the 2016 Ariane 6 first-stage design. The methane-powered core could use one or more engines, matching capabilities of Ariane 64 with only two boosters instead of four. As of January 2015, the economic feasibility of reusing an entire stage remained in question. Concurrent with the liquid fly-back booster research in the late 1990s and early 2000s, CNES along with Russia concluded studies[when?] indicating that reusing the first stage was economically unviable as manufacturing ten rockets a year was cheaper and more feasible than recovery, refurbishment and loss of performance caused by reusability.[58]

In June 2015, Airbus Defence and Space announced that Adeline, a partially reusable first stage, would become operational between 2025 and 2030, and that it would be developed as a subsequent first stage for Ariane 6. Rather than developing a way to reuse an entire first stage (like SpaceX), Airbus proposed a system where only high-value parts would be safely returned using a winged module at the bottom of the rocket stack.[57]

In August 2016, ASL gave some more details about future development plans building on the Ariane 6 design. CEO Alain Charmeau revealed that Airbus Safran were now working along two main lines: first, continuing work (at the company's own expense) on the recoverable Adeline engine-and-avionics module; and second, beginning development of a next-generation engine to be called Prometheus. This engine would have about the same thrust as the Vulcain 2 currently powering Ariane 5, but would burn methane instead of liquid hydrogen. Charmeau was non-committal about whether Prometheus (still only in the first few months of development) could be used as an expendable replacement for the Vulcain 2 in Ariane 6, or whether it was tied to the re-usable Adeline design, saying only that "We are cautious, and we prefer to speak when are sure of what we announce... But certainly this engine could very well fit with the first stage of Ariane 6 one day", a decision on whether to proceed with Prometheus in an expendable or reusable role could be made between 2025 and 2030.[59] Charmeau was not positive about reusability in 2018, stating that if Ariane had a launch schedule of ten flights per year and had a rocket that could be reused ten times, the company would only build one rocket per year, making supporting an ongoing manufacturing supply chain unviable ("I cannot tell my teams: 'Goodbye, see you next year!'"). Ariane would need 30 launches a year to justify the cost of researching reusability, he said.[60]

Main article: Ariane Next

In 2017, the Prometheus engine project was revealed to have the aim of reducing the engine unit cost from the €10 million of the Vulcain2 to €1 million and allowing the engine to be reused up to five times.[61] The engine development is said to be part of a broader effort – codename Ariane NEXT[62] – to reduce Ariane launch costs by a factor of two beyond improvements brought by Ariane 6. The Ariane NEXT initiative includes a reusable sounding rocket, Callisto, to test the performance of various fuels in new engine designs.[63]

The European Space Agency is exploring human-rating certification for Ariane 6, awarding Arianespace a contract to explore potential options for enabling crewed missions to be launched aboard the vehicle.[64]

Production

[edit]

In a January 2019 interview, Arianespace CEO Stéphane Israël said that the company would require four more institutional launches for Ariane 6 to sign a manufacturing contract. Launch contracts would be needed for the transitional period of 2020–2023 when Ariane 5 will be phased out and gradually replaced by Ariane 6. The company would require European institutions to become an anchor customer for the launcher. In response, ESA representatives said the agency was working on shifting the 2022 launch of the Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer from Ariane 5 ECA to Ariane 64, further indicating that there are other institutional customers in Europe that must put their weight behind the project, such as the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) or the European Commission.

As of January 2019, Arianespace had sold three flights of the Ariane 6 launch vehicle.[65] One month later, they added a satellite internet constellation launch contract with OneWeb to utilize the maiden launch of Ariane 6 to help populate the large 600-satellite constellation.[66]

On 6 May 2019, Arianespace ordered the first production batch of 14 Ariane 6 rockets.[67]

After the first 2 launches in 2024, the launch tempo will increase to 6 in 2025, 8 in 2026, and stabilize at 10 per year starting in 2027.[68]

Rocket components are transported by sea from Europe to the Guiana Space Centre aboard the Canopée, a cargo vessel that uses sails to assist with its propulsion, reducing fuel use.[69][70]

Development funding

[edit]

Ariane 6 was developed in a public-private partnership with the majority of the funding coming from various ESA government sources. As of 2015, the estimated government development cost over the then planned 6-year development phase through 2020 was €2.815 billion of government-provided funds, while €400 million was reported to be "industry's share". At the time, in a novel approach for ESA, this was to be "an arrangement in which the [Airbus Safran] company takes full control of Ariane 6 design and development and commits to a firm, fixed-price contract"[71]

By the time the ESA Council approved the project in November 2016, the ESA had already paid out €688 million to Airbus Safran[72] and the ESA Industrial Policy Committee released €1.7 billion of additional funds on 8 November 2016.[73]

In January 2020, two EU institutions, the European Investment Bank and the European Commission, loaned €100 million to Arianespace, drawing from the Horizon 2020 and Investment Plan for Europe corporate investment programmes. The 10-year loan's repayment is tied to the financial success of the Ariane 6 project.[74][needs update]

Launch history

[edit]

List of launches

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from List of Ariane launches (2020–2029) § 2024.[edit]
Flight No. Date
Time (UTC) 		Rocket type
Serial No. 		Launch site Payload Payload mass Orbit Customers Launch
outcome
VA262 9 July 2024
19:00 		Ariane 62
L6001[75] 		Guiana
ELA-4 		Multiple rideshare payloads 1,600 kg[76] LEO Various Partial failure
Maiden flight of Ariane 6. It was a flight test carrying a mass simulator plus a number of small cubesats and other experiments as rideshare payloads. Rocket launched successfully to orbit and upper stage performed a second burn to release cubesats. During attempt to perform a third burn to deorbit the upper stage, the rocket's auxiliary propulsion system failed. This failure prevented the upper stage from relighting.[77][78][79][80]

Planned launches

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from List of Ariane launches (2020–2029) § Planned launches.[edit]
Date
Time (UTC) 		Type Payload Orbit Customers Launch
status
December 2024[79][78] Ariane 62 CSO-3 SSO CNES / DGA Planned
French military Reconnaissance satellite. Despite the problem with the APU on Ariane 6's first flight, an Arianespace official said they are still "perfectly on track now to make the second launch this year".[79]
Q1 2025[81] Ariane 62 Galileo FOC FM 29, 30 MEO ESA Planned
2025[82][81] Ariane 62 Galileo FOC FM 28, 31 MEO ESA Planned
2025[82][81] Ariane 62 Galileo FOC FM 33, 34 MEO ESA Planned
September-November 2025[83] Ariane 62[84] MetOp-SGA1 Polar EUMETSAT Planned
2H 2025[85] Ariane 64 Project Kuiper (30+ satellites) LEO Kuiper Systems Planned
First Ariane 64 launch and first Ariane launch for Project Kuiper
Q2 2026[86] Ariane 64 Intelsat 45 GTO Intelsat Planned
June-August 2026[83] Ariane 64[84] MetOp-SGB1 Polar EUMETSAT Planned
Q3 2026[87] Ariane 64[88] MTG-I2[89] GTO EUMETSAT Planned
Q4 2026[90] Ariane 64 Multi-Launch Service (MLS) #1 rideshare mission GTO TBA Planned
2026[91] Ariane 6 Galileo G2 1, 2 MEO ESA Planned
2026[92][93] Ariane 64 Intelsat 41, 44 GTO Intelsat Planned
Q4 2026[94][95] Ariane 62[96] PLATO Sun–Earth L2 ESA Planned
2026[97][98] Ariane 64 Uhura-1 (Node-1)[99] GTO Skyloom Planned
Q4 2027[90] Ariane 64 MLS #2 rideshare mission GTO TBA Planned
2027[100][101] Ariane 64 Optus-11 GTO Optus Planned
2027[102] Ariane 64 Earth Return Orbiter Areocentric ESA Planned
2027[91] Ariane 6 Galileo G2 3, 4 MEO ESA Planned
2027[103] Ariane 6 Hellas Sat 5 GTO Hellas Sat Planned
Q4 2028[90] Ariane 64 MLS #3 rideshare mission GTO TBA Planned
Q3 2029[90] Ariane 64 MLS #4 rideshare mission GTO TBA Planned
2029[104] Ariane 62 ARIEL, Comet Interceptor Sun–Earth L2 ESA Planned
2031[105] Ariane 64 Argonaut Mission 1 TLI ESA Planned
2035[106] Ariane 64[107] Athena Sun–Earth L2,
Halo orbit 		ESA Planned
2035[108] Ariane 6 LISA Heliocentric ESA Planned
TBD[109] Ariane 64 17 more launches of Project Kuiper (35–40 satellites)[110] LEO Kuiper Systems Planned
TBD[111] Ariane 62 Electra GTO SES S.A. / ESA Planned
TBD[111] Ariane 62 Eutelsat ×3 GTO Eutelsat Planned

Criticism

[edit]

Ariane 6 has been subject to criticism for its cost per launch and lack of reusability.

When initially approved by ESA in 2012, the rocket was envisioned as a modernized version of Ariane 5, optimized for cost. At the time, commercial competitors like SpaceX were already putting downward pressure on launch costs.[112][113] However, these companies had made few successful flights and had not yet proven that reusability would be economically beneficial, with the reusable Space Shuttle cited by some as an example to the contrary. In the more than a decade that Ariane 6 was in development, the project was delayed and went over budget. During that same time, SpaceX continued to iteratively develop its Falcon 9 rocket, nearly doubling its payload capacity and successfully landing rockets for reuse, making it more capable and far less costly than Ariane 6.[114][115][2]

European officials have defended Ariane 6 stating that its governments need access to space, independent from other states or private companies. They point to geopolitical events that cut off Europe's access to Russian Soyuz rockets in as an example of that need. They also defend the rocket's lack of reusability, arguing that it would not be economically viable given the rocket's fewer planned launches.[116][117]

The ESA's member states agreed to subsidize the rocket with up to €340 million annually from its 16th to its 42nd flight (expected in 2031) in return for an 11% discount on launches.[116][118]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ The lead manufacturer is from France, but the rocket has significant contributions from companies based in Germany, Italy, Spain, Belgium, Austria, Switzerland and Sweden.

References

[edit]
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